Mahesh Paudyal
Abstract
The cultural relations between Nepal and China predate their diplomatic relations by many centuries. The formal diplomatic relations were established only some sixty-five years ago on August 1, 1955 (Maskey 3)[1]. But the thread of cultural relations disappears in the mist of time. These cultural relations fundamentally had three aspects. First, they were relations developed by the southward expansion of Tibetan kingdom; second by the northward expansion of Buddhism to Tibet and the Chinese mainland; and third, the trade relationship, which also had cultural impacts alongside the expected business relations developed through Silk Route[2]. Given the linguistic and cultural differences between the two peoples, the roles translation played in making it happened can be obviously ascertained. This articles peeks into the achievements translation has made so far in cementing literary and cultural relations between the two nations, in the meantime, tracing briefly the ancient historical ties that gave way to the modern-day relationships.
Nepal and China: Ancient Relations
a) Tibetan Empire Reaching out to the South
No one is perhaps in a position to tell how Nepal-China relations developed in the ancient times. The Kathmandu Valley culture of Nepal has preserved the mythical legend of Manjushree who is said to have come to Nepal from Wu Tai Mountains of China to worship self-created fire of Swayambhu over the lake that was Kathmandu Valley at that time. D.B. Shrestha and C.B. Singh write: “The valley of Kathmandu remained under water till Manjushree, a Bodhisatwa (potential Buddha) who came from China on pilgrimage sometime in Tretayuga[3] to pay unreserved homage to Swayambhu which appeared on the lotus that grew out of the seed thrown in the lake by Bipasvi Buddha who came to Nepal sometime in the golden age, cut a rock through which the water of the lake flowed out, making the valley habitable” (3).
A gorge cut at Chovar is credited to him to drain the water of the lake and erect the dome of Swayambhunath over the hill from where fire was emanating. Popular legend also ascribes to Manjushree the establishment of the first human settlement in the valley by the name of Manjupattan, which in successive centuries evolved into Kathmandu Valley. Myths apart, there are historical evidences of royal relationship between Nepal and the ancient kingdom of Tibet. This is evidenced by the presence of Tibetan words in the vocabulary of some of Nepal’s present-day dialect, and the reference to Nepal in some ancient Tibetan historical edicts. Acharya Kirti Tulku Lobsang Tenzin makes the following claim about this relationship:
In ancient times, Tibetans referred to Nepal as Bal-po or Lho-Bal. Tunhuang Documents Relating to Tibetan History records: “In the Monkey Year, Tsanpo (Tibetan king) stayed in Bal-po (Nepal) during summer” and in Lhochen Thangla’s record: “We in the Lho-Bal (south Nepal) are victorious”. Nepalese refer to Tibet as Bhot. On the ancient historical edicts erected in Nepal in the year 695, Tibet has been referred to as Bhot-Vist. (83)
The earliest contact between Nepal (Bal) and Tibet (Bod) is believed to have taken place in the 6th century, according to Acharya Tenzin. One of the most convincing evidence of this claim is that Tibetan races have been amalgamated in the Nepali ethnic mainstream. Tenzin again claims:
Tamang is a corruption of the Tibetan term Ta-mag: Ta (horse) and Mag (soldier). According to oral narration of elderly Nepali people, the Nepalese are descendents of the 8th century Tibetan cavalry forces of king khri-srong de’u-tsan, a section of which settled in the Himalayan areas during their return from the invasion of India. The Tsang race of Nepal could have originated from the Tsang province of Tibet. (83)
Historical evidences show the presence of two routes open to Tibetans to travel south. The first route was via Kashmir and the second through Nepal by what they called “Toofan Nepal Marg”—The Story Nepal Road—so named because of the many military invasions that came wreaking Nepal like a storm by this road. Accordingly to Tenzin, the 7th century Chinese envoy Shuan Chang came by the Toofan Nepal Marg. Bhrikuti Devi (Bhelsa Tritsun: Nepali consort) of Srong-tsen Gam-po was received in Tibet by this road. This route in the south west of Tibet connects Kyirong (Kerung) with Kathmandu in the north-west. (Tenzin 83).
In 632, when Srong-tsen Gam-po acquired in marriage princess Bhrikuti, the daughter of King Amshuvarma (Tib: Woser Gocha) of Nepal, the ‘rZongsKhels’ or dowry were also acquired in accordance with Tibetan wishes. When Bhrikuti came to Tibet in marriage, many sacred and priceless objects of worship and culture, along with expert Newari craftsmen came to Tibet. The world famous Mar-po-ri (the Red Palace) later rebuilt and improved as the Potala was initially constructed to the wishes of Bhrikuti Devi for king Srong-tsen Gam-po. The expert masons, artists, carpenters etc. were brought from Nepal. Thugji Chen-po rang-jung nga-Idan, the statue of Chanrezi revered throughout Tibet was carved by the well-known Nepali craftsman and artist Thro-wo. Even during the reign of Khri-srong, joint Nepali and Tibetan craftsmen curved the Tub-wang and other statues in the Samye Cathedral thereby strongly contributing towards the enrichment of Tibetan art and architecture. Tibetans refer to the art objects of Nepali origin as Bhal-zo (Nepali design) and credit them with quality and originality.
b) Northward Expansion of Buddhism
The northward expansion of Buddhism to China from Nepal via India is an important bridge that connects the two peoples. Hiranya Lal Shrestha, former ambassador and foreign relations expert says, “The ideal of Buddhism is the golden thread to bind together the people of Nepal and China” (9). As early as the first century AD, Buddhism is believed to have entered China. Legend mentions Han Emperor Ming dreaming of Buddha, following which he sent emissaries to find him. The emissaries, who moved west, met two monks Dharmaratna and Kashyapa Matanga on two horses, carrying with them a picture of the Buddha. They were taken to the palace, where the king made arrangements for them to stay and translate Buddhist texts into Chinese. As for Tibet, the advent of Buddhism, most probably, was through Bhrikuti. Wee Kek Koon clearly writes:
Buddhism was established in Tibet during the seventh century, when the Tibetan King Songsten Gampo married Princess Bhrikuti Devi of Nepal and then Princess Wencheng of Tang-dynasty China around 640. From their home countries, the princesses brought sacred Buddhist images and texts into Tibet, introducing that country to their religion. (1)
However, it was during the time of King Trisong Detsen (reigned 755-797) that Buddhism really settled down in Tibet. Now that the mainland China as well as Tibet was under heavy influence of Buddhism, more cultural interactions started taking place between Nepal and China.
Besides Bhrikuti, a Nepali monk Buddhabhadra, who went to China in the 5th century, did a lot by translating Buddhist scriptures into China. Vinay K. Manandhar makes the following reference to Buddhabhadra’s role in China:
Buddhabhadra was the first Nepalese monk to visit China in the fifth century AD. Besides him, two other Nepalese Buddhist scholars Vimoksasena and Subhakarasimha went to China in the sixth and eighth century respectively and made contributions to the spread of Buddhism in China translating Buddhist texts into Chinese. Unfortunately, Nepalese have not recorded the great accomplishment of the prominent Nepalese Buddhist scholar Buddhabhadra and others who who went to China with a purely missionary spirit and whose names are interwoven with the history of Buddhism in China. Buddhabhadra was indeed the torchbearer of Nepalese civilization abroad. Significantly, the Chinese have not only preserved the name of this Nepalese Buddhist scholar, but also have preserved the records of the Chinese Buddhist monk-scholars Fa-hsien, Hsuan-tsang, Seng-tsai and others who went to Nepal. (2)
At the heart of Buddhabhadra’s work was his translation of the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. What did he translate in the first place? Vinay K. Manandhar has the answer for that:
Now, fifteen of Buddhabhadra’s translated words are said to have been preserved in China. The most extensive of which was the Avatamsaka-Sutra (Discourse on the Garland) in fifty chapters. This work was completed in 420 AD. It is highly metaphysical and represents the highest level of Mahayana thought. In 416 AD., along with Fa-hsien, Buddhabhara translated Mahasanghika Vinaya into forty volumes. The most noted work which Buddhabhadra translated into Chinese in collaboration with Fa-hsien was Mahaparinirvana Sutra (Discourse on the Great Decease) in six volumes. Others included the Vinayapitaka (the code of monastic discipline) of the Mahasanghika School in thirty-four chapters, Buddha Vatamsaka Mahavaipulya Sutra in thirty-four chapters, Buddhanusmriti-Samadhi (a discourse on the contemplation of the Buddha), Gharva Sutra, Gyana Sutra, Samadhi Sutra, Vaipulya Sutra and Majushree Sutra of swear and vow. In addition to these texts, he also translated several other Buddhist texts, which include Anantamukha Sadhakadharani in 519 AD., Tathagatagarbha in 420 AD, Kaun fo san mei hai ching in 420-423 AD., Yogacarabhumi in the second year of Lung-An of Eastern Chin dynasty, and Bhadracaryapranidhana. (4-5)
Since that day, Buddhism has become a cementing link between the two civilizations, and the interaction continues even today. The legacy of Buddhabhadra has been inherited, and more works have been done by posterity in this line.
c) Relations Developed by Silk Route
The famous ‘Silk Route’ is an ancient trade route that connected China with its neighbours, especially to its south, each and west economically. Dr. Rishi Raj Adhikari writes:
This road was initiated during the rule of Chinese Emperor Wudi in 150 BC and named ‘Silk Road’ by German Geographer named Ferdinand Von in 1877. The road was used for silk sale and trade of other items, exchange of culture, ideas and movements of military and people. The route had linked the regions where modern nations like Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Arabian nations, Nepal, India, Pakistan, China, Japan, Mongolia, Korea, Myanmar, among others are located. It may signify a historic trading route but in reality it was a gateway that connected people and promised a new exchange of ideas and talents which is even more pertinent in modern times. It includes road, air and sea routes, so it is now called ‘Silk Route’. (“Preface” ii)
Though initially a trade route, the Silk Route did not limit itself to trade. It was a gateway to diplomatic, cultural and religious exchange. Consequently, it made possible more intense cultural interaction between China and Neplal. Dr. Madhuraman Acharya rights:
Chinese Traveller Fai-Han (also known as Faxian[4]) used the Silk Route to come to Gandhara and northern India between 399 and 413 CE. In the seventh century (629-645 CE), another Chinese Traveller Huen Tsang (also pronounced as Xuanzang) traversed the route following the footsteps of Faxian and came to Nepal and India in search of Buddhist scriptures…The Silk routes have allowed a great flow of trade, ideas, cultures, civilizations and conventional knowledge. (18)
A number of studies confirm that this very route allowed Buddhism to travel northward from Nepal better, and its reach in the Chinese mainland became even more pervasive. Dr. Acharya confirms this assertion: “The traditional Silk Route had also helped spread Buddhism from Nepal to China and Central Asia, and the Southeast Asia” (18).
Literary Relations Today
Modern literary and cultural activists and artists have continued to invent and embolden linkages between the two civilizations. Laxmi Prasad Devkota’s Muna Madan (1930), a short epic, features the protagonist Madan’s employment trip to Lhasa, where a Tibetan man rescues him from the clutches of a terrible disease by showing the highest degree of human compassion. This work has also been translated into Chinese by Liu Chian. Another book is Dor Bahadur Bista’s novel Sotala, which is partly set in Tibet. There is a host of travel accounts by Nepali writers that make China the subject of their writing, though most of them are yet to be translated. Ram Babu Subedi’s short epic Lu Xun was translated into English in 2017, and reportedly, its Chinese translation is underway. Trans-Himalayan Silk Road (2017) by Hiranya Lal Shrestha[5], and Aloukik China (Ethereal China, 2017) by journalist Ajaya Shrestha[6] are other two books by Nepali authors. Trans-Himalayan Silk Road’ is a book about China’s Belt and Road Initiatives whereas Aloukik China (2017) is about living experiences as well as a collection of stories through journalism. Many stories in Upahar (2018), a short story collection by Beizing-based Nepali journalist Chetnath Acharya, are based in China, but yet to be translated.
Chinese Literature in Nepal
When we consider the Chinese side, Lu Xun, perhaps is the best-known modern Chinese author to Nepali readership. Many of his works have been translated into Nepali. In fact, there also is a tradition of observing his birth anniversary in Nepal. This trend of observing his birthday started some forty years ago. Critic Ninu Chapagain mentions that it was in 1966 that Lu Xun’s birth anniversary was first observed in Nepal on 21 August, on the occasion of Lu Xun’s 85th birthday by Nepal-China Friendship Association. On 25th September 1981, the centenary was observed in various places including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Chitawan and Sankhuwasabha. The exhibition of photos and paintings organized at Tri-chandra College from December 27 to 29, 1981 was of special importance. On the occasion, magazines like Nava Aalok and Sankalpa published Lu Xun special issues.
Devkota Lu-Xun Academy, a literary-cultural organization, started commemorating Lu Xun’s birth since its inception in the year 2011. This very organization, in 2014, organized an exhibition on the “Life and Work of Lu Xun” in Kathmandu, followed by a seminar on literary relations between Nepal and China.
A few works of Chinese Literature are available in translated forms in Nepal, though a huge chunk of representative Chinese literature is still not accessible to Nepali readership due to the lack of translation. Numerically too, Lu Xun’s works are perhaps the most numerous works that have been translated from Chinese to Nepali. The first work to introduce Lu Xun in details to Nepali readership was Kosha Raj Regmi’s Lu Xunko Jivanko Chhoto Adhayayan—a brief study of Lu Xun’s life. Prof. Niranjan Bhattarai’s Chin ra Tyassita Nepalko Sambandha—China and Nepal’s relation with it—published in 1961 anthologizes 32 essays on different title, and the 27th one is on Lu Xun.
From 1963 to 1965, a periodical titled Rooprekha publishes a series of works by Lu Xun in Nepali translation. In 1963, Sahitya, another literary periodical published two of Lu Xun’s famous speeches. Lu Xun’s world famous stories, “A Madman’s Diary”, and the “True Story of Ah Q” were published. The translator who translated all these works into Nepali from Chinese was Shantadas Manandhar. Nepal-China Friendship Association has published Sahityama Lu Xunka Bicharharu (Thoughts of Lu Xun in Literature, 1965), Lu Xunko Samjhanama (In Memory of Lu Xun, 1966) and Lu Xunka Kehi Nibandhaharoo (Some Essays of Lu Xun, 1965).
The contribution of Nepal Academy itself in translation and promotion of Chinese literature inside Nepal has been quite significant. It has many Chinese books translated and published in Nepali. To mention a few, they include poems of Du Fu translated into Nepali, Gu Morou’s drama Chuya, Chinese Folk Stories, Old Tales of China, Some Observation on Chinese Literature, and China and Its Relation with Nepal (English and Chinese editions) etc. China, Tibet and Nepal, a book by noted historian Baburam Acharya, published in both English and Nepali versions, is an extremely significant Academic work.
Pragatisheel Lekhak Bhandar (Progressive Writers’ Store) Bhaktapur published another collection of Lu Xun’s essays titled Lu Xunka Kehi Nibandhaharu (Some Essays of Lu Xun). Sahitya Sadan Nepal, in 2010, complied and published 43 essays translated by Shantadas Manandhar. Deep Prakash has published best of Lu Xun’s stories under the title Lu Xunka Utkrishta Kathaharu (Best stories of Lu Xun), translated by Ramesh Sunuwar, and consisting of 18 stories. Gopi Raman Upadhyaya has translated Lu Xun’s Chinese Ancient Tales. Wang Shi Chhing’s Biography of Lu Xun, translated as Lu Xunko Jeevani has also been published. Its translation was done by Khagendra Sangraula, and published by Niranjan Govinda Baidhya in 1985. Sangraula also translated three volumes of the Collected Works of Mao into Nepali in the seventies. Red Bright Star (Shanshande hongxing) by Li Xintian was translated by Pratik Dhakal, was published by Gunilo Prakashan in 1994/5 (Hutt 17). Yang Mo’s novel The Song of Youths was translated into Nepali by Khagendra Sangarual in 1984-85.
In the recent times, innumerable works of translation have been published. To mention a few, President Xi Jinping’s acclaimed book Xi Jinping: The Governance of China consisting of 79 speeches, talks, interviews, notes and letters of the Chinese leader between November 2012 to June 2014, was published in Nepali in 2016 by China Study Center (CSC). The translation and publication work was accomplished in close collaboration with the Embassy of China in Nepal, the State Council Information Office of China, CFLPA and the Information Office of People’s Government of Yunnan Province of China.
Recently, i.e. in 2018 itself, Current Publications launched the Nepali and English translation of 12 Chinese books in Beijing. They include Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, Fun Reading about China, Tibetan Arts, Tibet from All Angles, and some folk story books for children, among others. Makalu Publication recently published six Chinese books into Nepali: Ren Zhengfei and Huawei, Jackma and Alibaba, Ma Hauteng and Tencent, Wang Jianlin and Dalian Wanda, and Dong Minghu and Gree.
Growing Interest in Chinese Literature and Language
Of late, there is a growing interest among the Nepalese in Chinese language. The rise of China as one of the fastest world economics and a global power has revised the world order, making China a centre of attention. Obviously therefore, many people are feeling the urgency to learn Chinese language and understand Chinese way of life.
In Nepal, institutions offering classes in Chinese language are burgeoning. Besides the oldest institution of its kind, the ‘Campus of International Languages’ under Tribhuvan University, the Confucian Centre in Kathmandu University is offering courses in Chinese language and literature. There also are many institutions in Kathmandu that offer courses on Tibetan studies. Many private schools in Nepal these days have Chinese citizens offering Chinese language classes, and coordinating visits of Nepalese students and teachers’ visit to China. Visits coordinated by literary and cultural institutions too have increased. In the recent time, visits of Nepali litterateurs and artists to China were coordinated by Nepal Academy, China Study Center, Nepal-China Society, World Culture Net, Nepal-China Women Friendship Society, Arniko Society, Nepal-China Friendship Association, Nepal-China Cultural Council, Devkota Lu-Xun Academy, Nepal Council of World Affairs, Nepali Art and Literature Dot Com Foundation, etc.
There are distinguished scholars, who have studied and written extensively on Nepal-China relations, both diplomatic and cultural. Though expert sinologists Late Govinda Bhatta former Prime Minister Mr. Kirtinidhi Bista are no more, there are others whose study and expertise have contributed to the better understanding of relations between Nepal and China, both culturally and diplomatically. Some of such scholars to mention at the moment are veteran culture expert Satya Mohan Joshi, sinologists Madan Regmi, Dr. Upendra Gautam, Prof. Dr. Bisheshworman Shrestha, Ganga Prasad Uprety, Mr. Suresh Karki, former ambassadors Mr. Surendranath Bhattarai, Mr. Hiranyalal Shrestha, Dr. Mahesh Maskey, Mr. Rajeshwor Acharya, Mr. Tanka Karki, Mr. Keshav Bhakta Mathemam, Prof. Mohan Lohani, Dr. Shambhu Ram Simkhada, Mr. Leela Mani Poudel, H.E. Ambassador of Nepal to China, Mr. Narayan Man Bijukchhe, Mr. Pradeep Gyawali, Mr. Yuba Raj Karki, Mrs. Sujata Koirala, Prof. Dr. Surendra KC, former Secretary General of SAARC Mr. Arjun Thapa, Mr. Gopi Raman Upadhyaya and many others.
There are many translators in Nepal, who can render Chinese texts into Nepali and vice-versa. Though this list is not exhaustive, a few prominent translators are Dr. Pradeep KC, Mrs. Deepa Pradhan, Mr. Prakash Neupane, Mr. Rajendra Chawal, Dr. Sagar Neupane, Mr. Sarbottam Shrestha, Mr. Dillip Acharya, Dr. Harish Chandra Shah, Prof. Dr. Baikuntha Poudel, Prof. Dr. Bal Mukunda Regmi, Mr. Basudev Sharma Toofan and others.
Our Mutual Literary Markets: Prospects and Problems
There is a huge prospect of Chinese literary market in Nepal. There are a couple of very significant organizations working between China and Nepal for literary promotion. Nepal Academy, China Study Centre, Devkota Lu-Xun Academy, Nepal-China Friendship Association, World Culture Net, Pragatisheel Pushtak Bhandar, etc. are working closely with their Chinese counterparts to promote literature of one another’s country. Most importantly, Nepal Academy has signed a memorandum of understanding with China’s China Writers’ Association some six years ago from now, and they are working together. In the recent times, deals have been made with China Federation of Literary and Art Circle, and Chinese Culture, Translation and Studies Support Network for literary and cultural exchange through translation, publication and other types of interactions. These are landmark agreements, and are expected to boost up bilateral cultural and literary relations between the two peoples.
Moreover, growing mobility of citizens, exchange of students between China and Nepal, opening of Confucius Study Centre and several other Chinese language institution, China Culture Centres and bilateral literary and cultural exchange visits, seminars and exhibitions have multiplied the prospects of Chinese literature in Nepal in the recent times.
On the Chinese side, the collaborative efforts on language instructions through various schools, colleges and Confucius Study Centres has, in the recent times, gained high priority. The Chinese Culture Translation and Studies Support Network (CCTSS), the Chinese Embassy in Kathmandu and the Nepalese Embassy in Beijing are also playing their roles. Most remarkably, an MoU has been recently signed between Nepal Academy and China Writers Association for mutual literary and cultural cooperation. Similarly, understandings have been signed between Nepal Academy and China Federation of Literary and Art Circle (CFLAC) in the recent times, and the two sides have been working for literary exchange. China-South Asia Literature Forum, established three years ago with Nepal Academy, China Writers Association, Bharatiya Sahitya Academy, Bangla Academy, Pakistan Academy of Letters and Sri Lankan Academy as its founding members. The first convention of the Circle was held in Chengdu city of Sichuan Province of the People’s Republic of China in November, 2017.
Publications with Chinese stake, for instance like Tian Li Publication and Current Publications are also working with their contact offices in Nepal. Asia Pacific Daily, a business periodical is being regularly distributed among Nepali readership.
Cultural remoteness between China and Nepal, basically due to linguistic and scriptural differences, is the biggest hurdle on the path of our literary and cultural exchange. We need more and more translators who are efficient in both the languages. So, there is a dire need to accelerate language learning process on both the sides. Publications should come forwards to publish such translations, and barriers, if any, in promoting each other’s book in each other’s markets should be systematically removed. It appears that the states themselves should take initiative to sponsor translations, publications and promotions, because individual translation and private publications have their own limitations. More frequent student-exchange programs, guided research, enhanced press relations, organisational collaborations and higher frequency of visits and deliberations, perhaps are the needs of the present time. Translator’s training and joint efforts to translate each other’s representative literary works should be prioritized. Enhances cooperation between Nepal Academy and other translation and publication houses in Nepal with their counterparts in China, especially with those affiliated to China Translation and Publishing House (CTPH), and Chinese Culture Translation and Studies Support (CCTSS) networks can prove extremely instrumental in cementing our literary and culture ties.
References
Adhikari, Madhuraman. “Silk Route Enhancing Nepal-China Connectivity”. In Silk Route: Enhancing Nepal-China Connectivity. (A seminar report). Kathmandu: Institute of Foreign Affairs, 2015. 16-27.
Adhikari, Rishi Raj. “Preface”. Silk Route: Enhancing Nepal-China Connectivity. (A seminar report). Kathmandu: Institute of Foreign Affairs, 2015.
Chapagain, Ninu. “Lu Xun in the Context of Nepal. Harmony. Ed. Mahesh Paudyal. Kathmandu: Devkota- Lu Xun Academy, 2015. 48-65.
Hutt, Michael. (2016) Ganga Bahadur’s Books: Landmark Proletarian Novels and the Nepali Communist Movement. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, vol. 17 no. 3 (2016): 357-374.<https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/ 23080/1/Hutt_ 23080.pdf>
Koon, Wee Kek. “How Buddhism Came to Tibet from China and Nepal.” South China Morning Post. 20 June 2015. < https://www.scmp.com/ magazines/post-magazine/article/1823095/how-buddhism-came-tibet-china-and-nepal>
Lal Shrestha, Hiranya. “Twelve Major Steps in Nepal-China Relations.” Harmony. Ed. Mahesh Paudyal. Kathmandu: Devkota- Lu Xun Academy, 2015. 3-6. 9-12.
Manandhar, Vijay Kumar. “Buddhabhadra and His Contributions in Buddhism in 5th Century China”. Northern Buddhism in History. Ed. Shaker Thapa. Kathmandu: Vajra Publications, 2008. 1-6. <https://www.scribd.com /document/30920446/Vijay-K-Manandhar-Buddhabhadra-A-Nepalese-Buddhist-Scholar-in-Ancient-China> 22 October 2014.
Maskey, Mahesh. “Sixty Years of Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between Nepal and China: A Brief Historical Review.” Harmony. Ed. Mahesh Paudyal. Kathmandu: Devkota- Lu Xun Academy, 2015. 3-6.
Tenzin, Acharya Kirti Tulku Lobsang Tenzin. “Relations between Tibet and Nepal: 7th and 8th Centuries. Trans. K. Dhondup. The Tibet Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Spring/Summer 1982), pp. 83-86.
Shreshta, DB and CB Singh. History of Ancient and Medieval Nepal. Kathmandu: Shrestha and Singh, 1972.
Several online sources, news, catalogues of publishing houses, and periodicals
[1] Dr. Mahesh Maskey is the former Ambassador of Nepal to China, and a Sinologist
[2] Silk Route is not merely a road concept; it is a broader idea of connectivity that includes water and airways as well
[3] The second major era in the scheme of four-era life cycle of creation according to Hindu calendar
[4] Alternatively spelt Fa-hsien
[5] Former Ambassador of Nepal to Russia and senior foreign relations expert
[6] A Nepali journalist working for China Radio International, CRI