Govinda Raj Bhattarai
Prelude
‘Postmodernism in Nepali stories’ is an issue quite intricate to explain, but the urgency of the present time doesn’t allow us to escape from the responsibility on the pretexts of its conceptual complexity. It’s high time we launched discussions, deliberations and discourses on this issue. We are already too late.
As soon as a discussion is launched on this issue, several assumptions of the postmodern thought and its pervasion come to the forefront. Should we examine it from the grounds of philosophy, economics or literature? Or, from postmodern music or culture? Since every aspect and dimension of life, from philosophy to folk experiences, show pervasion of the postmodern and its practice, it will be difficult to address each of those aspects. In this write-up, one genre of Nepali literature—the short story—has been taken up to examine the entry of postmodernism and its use, and a short discussion has been undertaken to suggest how the same can be explained.
It Informs about Shift of Paradigm
The direction of creative artefacts in Nepali literature has changed. Accordingly, it’s high time we changed the paradigms of literature and evaluation. This is not an abrupt outcome. Incidentally, it was after the political change of 1989 that Nepali literature started exhibiting a shift in its overall direction. More than the changes inside Nepal, it was global development that induced a rapid shift towards the evolution of an open, liberal society. Its impacts have started appearing in Nepal as well, especially in its literature and culture. It was at such a time when articles on postmodernism started appearing. Even books started burgeoning in the decade of the 2050’s BS. When we look back from today, we can notice that the number of books written in support or opposition of postmodernism has crossed one and a half dozen. This is not a trivial number. There are adequate grounds to enter those works and plan a PhD dissertation. This is a matter of joy.
The books published so far on postmodernism are listed below in chronological order of their publication:
1. Marxvad ra Uttar Aadhuniktavad (Marxism and Postmodernism; Rishi Raj Baral, 2052)
2. Nepali Sahitya Itihasko Rooprekha: Uttar Aadhunik Prastuti (An Outline of Nepali Literary History: A Postmodern Presentation; Shanti Raj Sharma, 2056)
3. Aakhyanko Uttar Adhunik Paryawalokan (The Postmodern Inquiry of Fiction; Govinda Raj Bhattarai, 2061)
4. Uttaradhunikta: Bhram ra Wastavikta (Postmodernism: Illusion and Reality; Ninu Chapagain, 2061)
5. Uttaradhunik Aina (The Postmodern Reflections; Govinda Raj Bhattarai, 2062).
6. Uttaradhuniktavad ra Samalakeen Yathartha (Postmodernism and Contemporary Reality; Rishi Raj Baral, 2063)
7. Uttaradhunik Jigyasa (Postmodern Curiosity; Krishna Gautam, 2064)
8. Uttaradhunik Bimarsha (Postmodern Discourse; Govinda Raj Bhattarai, 2064)
These are central works dealing with postmodernism. Eight/ten other books of peripheral importance have been published, which have their bearing on postmodern background, and signal that our creations, reading culture and analysis are fast changing. For example, we can refer to Govinda Raj Bhattarai’s Paschimi Baleshika Chhitaharu (The Spray of the Western Drip-Edge, 2061), Pemba Tamang’s Aakhyandekhi Parakhyansamma (From Fiction to Para-fiction, 2005) etc. Besides them, the works of Abhi Subedi, Mukesh Malla, Mohan Raj Sharma, Laxman Prasad Gautam and others have crossed the watermark of two dozens, which, albeit through scattered pieces of writing, have explained the postmodern idea, and are constantly registering their presence in the entire discourse. As a result, three students have registered themselves for PhD programme on this subject. The number of MA and MPhil dissertations submitted to various universities in Nepal has crossed three dozens. A detailed description of these works has been presented in the essay “The Entry and Practice of Postmodern Ethos in Nepali Criticism” in Uttaradhunik Bimarsha (Postmodern Discourses, 2064) by Govinda Raj Bhattarai.
The grounds of shift in paradigms have become clear both in creation and criticism of Nepali literature. The objective of this write-up, however, is limited to the presentation of an introduction to postmodernism in Nepali short stories, though these references have been made to prepare a background for the same. Not only short stories, but other genres of literature too are in need of newer perspectives for their study and analysis. This is applicable to issues other than literature as well. There are three grounds pertinent to this claim:
a. Philosophical grounds
b. Structural grounds
c. Stylistic grounds
This short write-up, however, cannot address all these grounds in detail. I shall try to explain certain things in brief. Viewed from philosophical grounds, we should understand reality or truth as an entity relative to one’s perspective. We should believe in its instability, which needs constant amendment. We must believe that the grand-narratives have either died out, or they deserve an end. Accordingly, the inversion and absence of the older values should lead to an inquiry for newer truth, and following it, we should be ready to embrace a new, pluralistic path. Such endeavours will foreground those thoughts, ideas, individuals and cultures which were hitherto back-grounded and lead to the evolution of newer centres. Establishment of multiple centres is one of its aims. Resistance and deconstruction of a singular centre is its objective.
Some newer structures can come up: generic disruption, inter-generic collage, indeterminacy of the limits of characterization and plot, and the presence of novelty and unconventionality; but all these are not imminent necessities, because novelty has been invited merely for breaking away from the dictates of classicality and fixity. We must be careful lest this becomes yet another instance of conservatism. Removal of one dictator should not be followed by the enthronement of another. Since it is a search for freedom from older constraints, postmodernism offers a room for exploring uncertain forms and processes. Postmodernism is in itself a new paradigm that can be constituted by many newer structures. The belief that no structure is, in itself, the ultimate will give birth to newer structures. Let newer values replace older structures (truths/illusions). All these manoeuvres undertaken to attain such a goal can be term ‘deconstruction’.
This does not have many pre-determined stylistic grounds. An artist is always in an open-ended atmosphere. Let him/her play the role of an inventor. Since he/he is an individual breaking open from all types of structural bondages, there are ample examples of such rupture, but there are not many limiting rules. Many things depend on individual invention. Pun, tone, trace and images appear. Opposition and satire can come forth. Fantastic imagination can occupy the central position. Many things are subjected to inversion. For this to happen, it is not necessary for any of the erstwhile ideologies to get erased. Be it any thought for that matter—realism, existentialism, Marxism, psychoanalysis or any other—its use in a postmodern context invites liquidity and novelty. After this, what follows next, in terms of its content, is a fourth issue for exploration. The content is the same; all that is new is the perspective to look at it, and that is always a different one. That is free of any finality.
Current Situation itself is Today’s Reality
Time has changed. Our socio-cultural conditions have changed. So have our educational, political and international scenarios. This change itself is the reality of our time. We write this change. Our new stories are about diasporic conditions. We have stories that envision our space in the cyber culture. There are stories that are committed to writing the issues of superhuman world, while there are stories on war and intercultural realities too. Ethnographic stories about various cultural groups have asserted for themselves a generic claim. Translated literature, transcreation, and deconstructive writings have several processes. Especially the marginalized characters, situations and conditions are getting into the body of contemporary writing. All these are new scenarios that invite newness. Accordingly, Nepali literature is taking newer turns and adopting newer styles.
The stories we are writing today are gradually moving away from modernist prescriptions. A group of writers has started adopting postmodern trends. The stories of the past could be analysed on grounds of their structure and system, but the present day stories demand post-structural analysis. They can be explained only through deconstructive and postmodernist approaches. The works in the past used to be more individualistic; but now, newer and darker forces bent on swallowing the individual have appeared, and so, our writing has turned towards the safety of the human kind, and the safety of the mass. Authors committed to ethnographic and cultural writing, gender awareness, and equality turn towards such issues. Their stories are the stories with postmodern consciousness.
Postmodern Study of Nepali Stories: A Background
Not much time has passed since Nepali stories started getting analysed from postmodern perspectives. Govinda Bhattarai’s article on deconstructive criticism and Nepali literature, published for the first time on 43rd issue of Kavita in 2049 presented the theoretical aspect of such study. The stories of Indra Bahadur Rai, Dhruva Madhikarmi and Ramesh Raj Panta, and the poems of Udaya Niraula discussed in the article have been taken as instances to explain the deconstructive process. In reality, deconstruction is the pivot of the very philosophy of postmodernism.
A few years later, Bhattarai’s yet another essay “Nepali Kathama Nawaprayog: Drishti ra Ghanaghor Jungle” (Drishti ra Ghanaghor Jungle: New Experimentations in Nepali Stories) was published in Garima, issue 249, 2060. This essay claims: “Dhruva Madhikarmi’s story collection Dhristi ra Ghanaghor Jungle collects fifteen short stories. Of them, four stories have become milestones of Nepali short stories. These four stories are: i) Arko Sudamako Katha (The Story of Another Sudama), ii) Sudama Number Dui (Sudama Number Two), iii) Dristi ra Ghanaghor Jungle (Drishti and the Dense Forest) and iv) Euta Dantyakathako Punarokti (The Retelling of a Fairy Tale). Of them, the last named story was published in the year 2039. This clearly indicates that Dhruva Madhikarmi was a pioneer in writing new stories. That time can be regarded as a point of departure.
Another important work in this line is “Uttaradhuniktavadko Sandarbhama Nepali Akhyan”, i.e., Nepali Fiction in the Context of Postmodernism. Though he article mentions ‘fiction’, it is basically an analysis and discussion of Nepali short stories. The work was published in Samakaleen Sahitya 45, 2060. This long write-up, in the beginning, presents the points to differentiate postmodernism from modernism. These points suggested by Ihab Hassan are considered valid even today. For example, if viewed from modernist or structuralist perspective, our creation appears bound, while in the new, it is free. Similarly, a creation used to be considered a ‘product’ earlier, which is now considered a process. That used to demand reading; this demands de-reading. That used to be considered certain; this uncertain. That used to be considered timeless; this one is instantaneous. Besides these, this article, for the first time mentions the differences between narrative and anti-narrative, between reader-centric and author-centric discourses.
That essay, on the basis of the standards discussed above, makes an analysis of the stories included in the story-special edition of Samakaleen Sahitya. Samakaleen Sahitya had, in its 25nd and 26th issues, published 32 and 34 stories respectively, making the number of stories 66. All these stories were those written in the 50’s of Bikram Sambat. The essay under discussion has analysed those stories. While doing so, attempts were made to foreground the novelty seen in their style, plot, characterization, theme, incident, etc. The collections contained stories by Kavitaram Shrestha, Kumar Gyawali, Govinda Bahadur Malla, Dhuswa Saymi, Dhruva Chandra Gautam, Parashu Pradhan, Manju Kanchuli, Meera Rem Pradhan, Manu Brajaki, Madhav Lal Karmacharya, Ramesh Vikal, Bishwambhar Chanchal, Shailendra Sakar, Lil Bahadur Chhetri, Amod Bhattarai, Avinash Shrestha, Gopal Parajuli, Ismali, Santa Regmi, Khagendra Sangraula, Tej Prakash Shrestha, Rishi Raj Baral, Nayan Raj Pandey, Narayan Dhakal, BB Lakandi, Rajab, Basu Baral, Vijay Chalise, Sarubhakta, Gopal Ashk, Dhoomketu and others, which have, in one way or another, transgressed the limits of traditional short stories. The new stories have replaced the erstwhile central idea and structure.
A Model of New Analysis
This write-up discusses how, at that time, postmodernist reading of the stories could be done. I remember a couple of contexts here. “Hari Sharan Ramko Punaragaman”, or “The Return of Hari Sharan Ram” by Ismali tells us that members of many communities that had been kept subjugated and oppressed for centuries are of the feeling that they should wipe out or peel off their own caste (surname). They feel that if they can do so, they can stay hidden or live without any identity, and by that token, get freed from servitude and stay free from inferiority complex. In the story, Hari Sharan replaced his real surname ‘Mochi’ by ‘Ram’. This is the consciousness of the oppressed class in the contexts of Madhes. The story depicts the Jhas and the Mishras, people of high and cultured social classes, as antagonists. Similar is the story “Sangram Bahadur Karki” by Khagendra Sangraula. Basu Baral’s “Nalu Arthat Nalika Deshar” too is a similar story.
In Dhruva Madhikarmi’s “Krishna ra Sudhama -2”, Krishna and Sudama are depicted as businessmen, hard-pressed by the oddity of the present time. Sudama is no longer a poor man, and there is a different mystery underlying his love for Krishna. His wife is in a different role. This is a deconstructive story. Another example of deconstruction appears in Avinash Shrestha’s “Dantya Kathabhitrako Dantya Katha” — ‘A Fairytale inside a Fairytale’. This story presents Prince Dikpal in a different role. The story is a collage of poetry, play and fiction. By that token, the story transgresses generic limits by mixing them. This is a new possibility discerned in other literatures as well. Use of fantasy, which is one of the predominant features of postmodern stories, is found dominantly in the stories of Morash. Sarubhakta’s “Nani Dhangre ra Meri Najanmeki Chhori” is an example of nature writing, in which, characters have been picked from non-human world. This way, the writing that attempts to analyze novelty in 56 Nepali short stories has hinted the need to develop newer perspectives to look at Nepali short stories.
Some New Story Collections
Since then, the stories have continued this newness and have registered a huge gallop in this direction. In the meantime, about fifty new storywriters have come up, some with collections and others in scattered writings. Many more are coming. Women writers are equally active; many writers are emerging from marginal groups. The number of translated stories too is on the rise.
In all these works, novelty and shift of paradigm is clearly discernible. I hereby list a few works of this period in order of their year of publication:
Sunyawat (2058) by Hiranya Kumari Pathak
Uttarardha (2058) and Sitaharu (2060) by Parashu Pradhan
Baikhari (2059) by Mohan Raj Sharma
Chaubatoko Charaitira (2059) by Hiranya Bhojpure
Samaya Bimba (2059) and Sandheko Dain (2062) by Biwash Pokharel
Manasthiti (2060) by Badri Palikhe
Nepali Youn Katha (Nepali Sex Stories, Part I, 2060), edited by Pramod Pradhan
Mann Manai ta Ho (2060), Ani…(2062) and Nishabda Prashnaharu (2063) by Ilya Bhattarai
Sipahiki Swasni (2059), African Amigo (2060), Chhapamarko Chhoro (2064) by Mahesh Bikram Shah
Timi Gayeki Bhaye (2060) by Radhika Ray
Purush Gandh (2060) by Pradeep Menyangbo
Saathi Barshama Hridayaghat (2060) by Dhruva Chandra Gautam
Santrasta Aankhaharu (2061) by Matrika Pokharel
Pratinidhi Katha (2061) by Sanat Regmi
Tusharapat (2061) by Tita Tamrakar
Chhatima Taap Rakhera (2061) by Aamod Bhattarai
Baluwama Arko Nepal (2061) by Rakshya Rai
Bisancho (2061) by Ratna Prajapati
Andhakar (2061) by Dhruva Sapkota
Kajol Khatun (2061) by Phulman Bal
Maun Bidroha (2061) by Jaleshwari Shrestha
Dobhan (2061) by Bhagawan Chandra Gyawali
Sanghuro Dharatal (2062) by Chandra Kala Newar
Orchestra (2062) by Durga Binaya
Atmahanta (2062) by Narayan Dhakal
Swapnayatra (2062) by Narendra Raj Paudel
Hawan (2062) and Kagajma Dastakhat (2064) by Neelam Karki Niharika
Jadoma Bhok (2062) by Rajendra Parjuli
Dosro Prahar (2062) by Baba Neupane
Swapnabhanga (2062) by Shyam Krishna Shrestha
Upama (2062) by Sita Aryal
Ananta Pahiraharu (2062) by Sijana Sharma
Jhola (2062) by Krishna Dharabasi
Dosro Vishwayuddha (2062) by Roshan Thapa Nirab,
Nepali Youn Katha (Nepali Sex Stories – Part II, 2062), edited by Laxman Prasad Gautam
Dwandwa ra Yuddhaka Katha (Stories of Conflict and War, 2063), edited by Govinda Raj Bhattarai and Bishnu Bibhu Ghimire
Samakalin Nepali Dwandwa Katha (Contemporary Nepali Stories of Conflict, 2063), edited by Laxman Prasad Gautam
Tanya, Indrakamal ra Adhakar (2063) by Avinash Shrestha
Tirsana (2063) by Laxmi Upreti
Aama Januhos (2063) by Maya Thakuri
Bhoomigat (2063) by Bhagirathi Shrestha
Rajendra Bimalka Katha (2063) by Rajendra Bimal
Chiriyeko Mutu (2063) by Homnath Subedi
Bighatan (2063) by Harihar Khanal
Nepali Youn Katha (Nepali Sex Stories – Part II, 2064) edited by Bimal Bhaukaji
Aafanta Dushman (2064) by Basu Jammarkattel
Leela Dharana ra Kathaharu (2064) Ratna Mani Nepal
In a similar way, Stories from Nepal (2003), published from Sajha Prakashan, Selected Stories from Nepal (2005) published from Nepal Academy and Beyond the Frontiers published from Gunjan are works that include stories by 75 authors in English translation.
More or less the same authors appear in English and Nepali versions. Those contemporary names have appeared in the works mentioned above. Of them, the majority had tilted towards postmodern writing. Time has made them turn towards postmodernism.
Newer Avenues of Creation and Nepali Stories
Postmodernism promotes diversity and plurality. It moves exploring newer avenues of creation. It seems alternatives to the centre-seeking tendency of the erstwhile practices. Accordingly, it develops newer parameters of criticism.
Of the many avenues of creativity that have appeared today, cyber culture is one. The world has been pervaded by cyber practices today. Globalization has made the world culture singular. Such a world is quite mechanized. One strand of Nepali short stories reflects the influence of cyber culture. Our writers have started writing cyber stories. This issue has been discussed at length in my book Uttaradhunik Bimarsha — the Postmodern Discourses.
Another avenue of creation is war. War literature occupies a formidable space in world literature. In case of Nepali literature, the preceding decade has bequeathed a huge body of war literature. Many storywriters have come forth with war as their themes. At the present time, war stories are making a huge gallop. The number of collections with war stories has crossed a dozen, and the number of storywriters is around a hundred. This is a big diversion. At the moment, unless we refer to the following collections, we will hardly know anything about war stories:
Dwandwa ra Yuddhaka Katha (Stories of Conflict and War) edited by Govinda Raj Bhattarai and Bishnu Bibhu Ghimire
Samakalin Dwanda Katha (Contempary War Stories) edited by Laxman Prasad Gautam
Chhamako Chhoro by Mahesh Bikram Thapa
Dwandwa ra Dhuwa by Punya Kharel
Aatmahanta by Narayan Dhakal
Aarambha arthat Suruwatka Kehi Katha by Dhir Kumar Shrestha
Jadoma Bhokka Kehi Katha by Rajendra Parajuli
Some stories in Beyond the Frontiers, edited by Padmavati Singh and Govinda Raj Bhattarai
Some stories from Andhakar by Dhruva Sapkota
Some stories from Maun Bidroha Jaleshwar Shrestha
Some stories in Kajol Khutun by Phulman Bal
Some stories from the collections of Rajendra Bimal
Some stories from Sitaharu by Parasu Pradhan
Some stories from Swapnayatra by Narendra Raj Paudel
For analysing war literature (also stories), one need to use the theory of trauma. Though they are yet to appear in collections, many writers are, at the moment, writing war stories. Their study holds different significance.
There is yet another dimension of postmodern writing, namely disporic and emigrant writing. This poses a different scenario. Of those writing from abroad, the important ones are Hom Nath Subedi (Chiriyeko Mutu, 2064), Rajab, Kamala Saroop, Govinda Giri Prerana, Nagendra Neupane, Mira Rem Pradhan, Rakshya Rai and others, while those from inside Nepali writing on such themes include Ilya Bhattarai, Padmavati Singh, Mahesh Bikram Shah, Manju Kachuli, Raju Babu Shrestha and many others, who have penned stories depicting hybridity and difference resulting from an intercultural encounter upon reaching foreign countries.
Postmodernism also lends freedom to translation. At the moment, those who have been translating stories from world literature and enriching Nepali literary corpus include Khagendra Sangraula, Bhuvan Dhungana, Narayan Dhakal, Kumud Adhikari, Ram Chandra KC, Byakul Pathak and many others. This is a novel avenue. This has ushered Nepali story into a new realm of diversity and novelty.
There is yet another new avenue of creation: environmental writing. This aspect is yet to enter Nepali story. However, its presence can be felt in poetry, essay and novels.
Finally, another very important salient feature of postmodernism is deconstruction, rewriting and reinterpretation. This aspect has become apparently discernible in Nepali short story. There are several instances where inter-generic collage can be noticed in the structure of a story, exemplified by some of the stories of Sarubhakta, Avinash Shrestha, Dhruva Chandra Gautam, Roshan Thapa, Narayan Dhakal and others. Of the many types of experimentation, we can notice newness in stories by “Sylvia” by Kumar Nagarkoti. Morash too is an extremely successful experimental storywriter. We can also notice such experimental nuance in Parasu Pradhan’s Sitaharu in the way he mixes characteristics of stories and novels in his fictions. The stories of Rajab too are equally experimental.
Nepali short story is moving towards a new direction. It is assuming a very different style and technique. Characters, setting and incidents are myriad. From the ethnic world, not many works have poured in. Yet, writers like Phulman Bal, Nabin Bibhas, Indrish Sayal, Prakash Angdembe, Raj Kumar Dikpal, Indira Chongbang, Dhan Hang Subba, Dr. Bishnu Rai, Apsara Lawati, Bhadragol Kirati, Krishna Dev Chaudhary etc. have written stories that deserve a significant attention.
A Nepali short story is fast assuming a global dimension. It is breaking away from traditionalism. They have, at the moment, started echoing the voices of the margin. These are the postmodern models of Nepali short story. It’s high time we had a separate collection of such stories. This is evolving.
Reference
Soles, Robert. Elements of Fiction: An Anthology. New York: Oxford, 1981.
Bhattarai, Govinda Raj. Paschimi Balesika Bachhita. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy, 2061.
—. Uttaradhunik Bimarsh. Kathmandu: Modern Books, 2064.
[Translation of Bhattarai’s “Nepali Kathama Uttaradhuniktako Prarambhik Sarvekshyan” by Mahesh Paudyal. Source: Rupantaran, 2076]
[Prof Govinda Raj Bhattarai, PhD (b. 1953) is a poet, novelist and critic of high repute. Professor of English at Tribhuvan University, he retired from his job a few years ago, and has since then devoted himself fully to literary works. He made his debut in writing quite early. His seminar works of repute include novels Muglan, Socrates Footsteps and Socrate’s Diary, theoretical non-fictions like Kavyik Andolanko Parichaya (Introduction to Poetic Revolutions), Aakhyanako Uttaradhunik Paryawalokan (Postmodern Study of Fiction), Paschimi Balesika Bachhita (Drops of Western Eaves), Uttaradhunik Aina (Postmodern Mirror), Uttaradhunik Bimarsha (Postmodern Discourses) and Samayabodh ra Uttaradhunikta (Time Consciousness and Postmodernism). He is also among Nepal’s pioneering translators and essayists. He can be reached at tu.govinda@gmail.com]